Akkad: The Earths first Empire

 PREHISTORY

The Akkadian Empire today is still recognized as being the world's first empire.  The Empire of Akkad was founded by Sargon of Akkad in 2334 BCE, who possibly originated from a city called Azupiranu that is believed to have been established in the northern parts of Mesopotamia, possibly in the region of Akkad itself or near the Euphrates River. Sargon of Akkad's autobiography is the only place that this name is found and is one of the earliest biographical writings in Mesopotamian history. It is part of a collection of inscriptions or stories from later Akkadian rulers who sought to claim legitimacy by tracing their lineage and deeds back to Sargon, and so the name of this particular city is believed to more so be part of Akkadian mythology then historical fact. The legend claims that his mother, a high priestess, was unable to conceive a child by her own husband, so she had him through a divine or mystical intervention. His birth is described as humble, with Sargon being placed in a reed basket and set adrift in the Euphrates River, much like the story of Moses in the Bible. His legend states that the basket was discovered by a water carrier named Akkia, who then took the child to raise him. He was later revealed to be of divine origin. The legend continues on to say Sargon found himself in the service of King Ur-Zababa of Kish. Sargon used this position of trust to gain prominence and then ousted the king, seizing power and control of Kish in 2334 BCE. Using Kish as a platform of power, Sargon began unifying the Semitic-speaking people that resided in the area and established the new capital of Akkad.

Rise of Akkad

As his rise to power was ultimately seen as a shift from traditional Sumerian power, Sargon likely took the next ten to fifteen years to make alliances and gather influence before laying siege to the surrounding lands. Sargon began the Akkadian War against Sumer, taking control of major cities such as Ur and Lagash. Sargon is credited with also having the first full time standing army of 5,400 professional soldiers known as "Agaush". Attacking the cities one at a time, Sargon avoided fighting a unified Sumer, and so individually the cities fell to his sword. One of the notable battles during this time was the Battle of Uruk, where Sargon’s forces decisively defeated the armies of Lugal-zage-si, the king of Uruk and the last prominent Sumerian ruler before Akkadian rule. Lugal-zage-si had previously united a few Sumerian cities under his rule, so defeating him was critical for Sargon to assert dominance over Sumer as a whole. Sargon eventually captured Lugal-zage-si and paraded him in chains in Nippur, a sacred Sumerian city, to showcase his victory. By 2324, Sargon had completely established dominance over Sumer. 

After securing Sumer, Sargon continued to expand his empire northwards into regions that are now parts of Syria and Anatolia (modern-day Turkey). This established trade routes and introduced Akkadian influence far beyond Mesopotamia. His expeditions also took him to the eastern regions, possibly the Elamite territories (modern-day southwestern Iran). Around the same time as his conquests in Sumer, Sargon also led conquests against other surrounding territories as well. To the east of Sumer, Sargon moved into the region known as Elam (modern southwestern Iran). Elam was a powerful and wealthy area with access to important resources. By conquering it, Sargon secured control over trade routes and resources like metals, which were valuable for maintaining his growing empire. Located along the Euphrates River to the northwest, the city of Mari was an important center for trade between Mesopotamia and the western regions (modern Syria). By subduing Mari, Sargon gained control over this critical trade route and established Akkadian influence further west. As part of his western campaigns, Sargon pushed into northern Syria, targeting cities in what would later be known as the Kingdom of Yamkhad. This expansion further solidified Akkadian control over trade routes that stretched from Mesopotamia to the Mediterranean coast. He also led forces against the people known as the Subatru, a term used to describe various people and regions in the north, including areas of modern-day northern Iraq and parts of southeastern Turkey. These regions included semi-nomadic populations that were not as well established as its neighbors but were still important for him to be able to control his northern border.  Sargon’s inscriptions also boast of his military reach to the “cedar forests” of Lebanon (a poetic reference that also appears in the Epic of Gilgamesh). This area was a valuable source of timber, a resource in short supply in Mesopotamia. Gaining influence or control over the forests allowed Akkad to secure a supply of high-quality wood for building and trade.

By 2300 BCE, the Akkadian language was becoming dominant in both written and spoken forms, and Sumerian culture was in decline. Sargon appointed governors within his cities and strengthens Akkad by creating a centralized bureaucracy. After 55 years of reign, Sargon passes his throne to his son Rimush and dies in 2279 BCE. His son would reign from his father's death until about 2271 BCE and would spend the majority of his rule leading military conquests against rebellions that were uprising across Akkad. Though his reign was marked by conflict, Rimush's ability to maintain control over the empire's territories for nearly a decade helped pave the way for his son, Naram-Sin, to later strengthen and expand Akkad further. However, it is believed that as a direct result of the internal conflicts that he fought against, Rimush was assassinated in about 2278 BCE, and his brother Manishtushu would take the throne for the next fourteen years. 

GOLDEN AGE

The true pinnacle of the Akkadian Empire began with the reign of Naram-Sin (c. 2261 BCE – c. 2224 BCE), who took control after Manishtushu's reign. Naram-Sin, Sargon's grandson, is credited with further strengthening and expanding the empire to its greatest territorial extent. One of Naram-Sin's earliest military successes was his conquest of the Lullubi, a mountain people from the Zagros Mountains (modern-day western Iran). The campaign is immortalized in the Victory Stele of Naram-Sin, where he is depicted as a god-king, leading his army to victory. This victory extended Akkadian influence into the highlands, and the inscription on the stele celebrates his divine right to rule and his unmatched military prowess. Inscriptions show him wearing the horned crown of the gods, symbolizing his divine right to rule. This was a major departure from previous Mesopotamian kingship, and it reinforced Naram-Sin’s absolute authority over his empire. As such, Naram-Sin’s reign also saw an expansion in the building of temples, palaces, and monuments. These structures were designed not only to honor the gods but also to glorify Naram-Sin’s achievements. His reign brought about a flourishing of art and architecture, solidifying Akkad's cultural dominance in the region.

DECLINE

The decline of the Akkadian Empire was a slow and complex process that spanned several decades, largely beginning after the reign of Naram-Sin and becoming particularly pronounced during the reign of his son, Shar-Kali-Sharri (c. 2224 BCE – c. 2193 BCE). Despite the empire's significant achievements under Naram-Sin, internal and external pressures began to undermine Akkadian rule. The first major sign of weakness appeared during Shar-Kali-Sharri’s reign, as he faced numerous rebellions across the empire. These uprisings were likely driven by resentment towards the heavy taxation, forced labor, and military conscription that Akkadian rulers imposed on their conquered territories. Many of these revolts were led by regional governors or local leaders who had grown dissatisfied with Akkad’s central control and were eager to reassert their autonomy. The scale and frequency of these uprisings sapped the empire’s ability to maintain cohesion. Around the same time, the empire faced severe environmental changes, notably a long-lasting drought that affected the Mesopotamian region. Evidence from the period suggests that the once fertile agricultural lands of Akkad suffered a dramatic decline in crop yields due to the lack of rainfall. This resulted in widespread famine, which in turn triggered social unrest and exacerbated the internal rebellion. The drought crippled the Akkadian economy, which was heavily reliant on agriculture to sustain its growing population and military forces. With food supplies dwindling and the economic foundations of the empire weakening, the Akkadian military found it increasingly difficult to maintain its control over the vast territories it had conquered. The decline of trade also played a significant role in the weakening of the Akkadian Empire. Akkad’s economic dominance was built upon its control of key trade routes that spanned from Mesopotamia to the Mediterranean, but with the instability brought on by the internal rebellions and environmental disasters, these routes became less secure. The Akkadians were also losing access to vital resources, such as timber from the cedar forests of Lebanon and metals from the east, which had been crucial for their military strength and infrastructure. By the time of Shar-Kali-Sharri’s death, Akkad was in a state of significant turmoil, and his son, Naram-Sin’s successor, faced an even more challenging environment. The Gutians, a group of semi-nomadic mountain people from the Zagros Mountains (modern-day Iran), took advantage of Akkad’s internal instability. They launched raids into Akkadian territories and eventually toppled the Akkadian Dynasty. The Gutians are often portrayed in Akkadian texts as “barbaric” invaders who destroyed the works of Akkadian civilization, and their invasion is often cited as a significant factor in the collapse of the Akkadian Empire. While the Gutians themselves are poorly documented, their military incursions, along with the continued revolts, economic collapse, and the loss of vital resources, contributed heavily to the disintegration of Akkad's centralized power. The final blow came in 2154 BCE, when the Gutians successfully seized control of Akkad, signaling the end of the Akkadian Empire. The loss of the capital city and the fall of the Akkadian dynasty left the region in disarray, and the empire that Sargon had built, though powerful at its peak, was irreparably fragmented.

Following the Gutian takeover, the Akkadian Empire's former territories would remain unstable, with competing city-states and kingdoms vying for control in the aftermath. The Akkadian language and culture, once dominant across Mesopotamia, gradually faded as new powers, such as the Babylonians and Assyrians, rose to prominence. The decline of the Akkadian Empire marks one of the first instances in history where a great empire fell due to a combination of environmental, social, and military pressures. While Sargon’s legacy endured, the collapse of the Akkadian Empire left a lasting impact on Mesopotamian history, reshaping the political and cultural landscape for centuries to come.

A DAY IN THE LIFE...

Life in Akkad was shaped by a rigid social structure and a reliance on the resources of Mesopotamia’s fertile crescent. Much of what we know about Akkadian daily life comes from surviving records, such as clay tablets written in cuneiform, archaeological excavations of city-states like Akkad and Kish, and trade records that highlight the economic and cultural exchanges of the time. The following provides insight into the daily life of Akkadian society, divided into its three primary social classes: nobles, commoners, and enslaved individuals.

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COMMONERS

Diet:

The diet of commoners in Akkadian society centered on barley, wheat, lentils, onions, and dates—ingredients revealed through excavation of agricultural tools, storage facilities, and the remains of food residue found in pots and cooking areas. Barley was particularly significant, as it was used to create bread, porridge, and beer, which was safer to drink than water due to river contamination. Archaeologists have discovered clay fermentation vats and brewing tools, as well as cuneiform tablets detailing beer production processes.

Meat was rare for commoners, though fish from the Tigris and Euphrates rivers was a staple protein source. Fish bones, drying racks, and depictions of fish in Akkadian art further confirm its importance. Spices and seasonings were limited to what was locally available, such as leeks, garlic, and mustard seeds, as trade goods like cinnamon and saffron were too expensive for most.

Recipe Highlight:
Akkadian beer-making involved fermenting barley into a drinkable solution, much like Sumerian beer. Tablets from the region describe the process of soaking barley, mashing it, and allowing it to ferment. One specific Akkadian text references a drink called sikaru, a type of thick, unfiltered beer consumed with straws to bypass sediment.

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Housing:

Archaeological remains of Akkadian commoner homes reveal that they were built from sun-dried mud bricks, which were easy to produce but required frequent repairs due to erosion. Excavations have uncovered small, compact homes with flat roofs, single multipurpose rooms, and occasionally a courtyard. Roofs often had ladders or stairs leading to them, as they served as sleeping areas during hot nights. Artifacts like reed mats, clay pots, and basic tools provide further evidence of commoner lifestyles.

The Akkadian emphasis on irrigation for agriculture, shown through remains of canal systems and irrigation ditches, also played a role in the construction of homes. Water was often directed to garden plots attached to homes, offering a communal approach to food cultivation.

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Recreation:

Commoners likely participated in simple games and physical activities, as depicted in Akkadian art and reliefs. Archaeological finds of game boards and dice suggest board games were a popular pastime. Evidence of community festivals, such as ceremonial items and cuneiform references to religious gatherings, also points to shared celebrations that allowed commoners to temporarily interact with the higher classes.

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NOBLES

Diet:

The nobility of Akkad enjoyed a much more varied and luxurious diet, which included lamb, goat, and imported delicacies like wine and spices. Archaeological evidence from palace kitchens and storage areas reveals imported goods such as figs, grapes, and exotic seasonings like cinnamon and coriander. Honey, a rare and expensive sweetener, was often used in Akkadian feasts, as documented in trade records and temple offerings.

Recipe Highlight:
The Yale Babylonian Culinary Tablets, which include recipes from Mesopotamia, offer insight into Akkadian dishes. One recipe for a lamb stew calls for lamb, garlic, leeks, and water thickened with barley or emmer wheat. It is seasoned with coriander and served with bread. Such dishes reflect the richness of noble cuisine and their access to a variety of ingredients.

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Housing:

The homes of Akkadian nobles were constructed using kiln-fired bricks, which were sturdier and required less maintenance than the sun-dried bricks used by commoners. Excavations at sites like Akkad have uncovered remnants of large, multi-room homes featuring courtyards and gardens. Imported cedar wood, likely from the Levant, and decorative stone flooring attest to the wealth of these homes.

Artifacts such as carved furniture, inlaid with shell or semi-precious stones, bronze mirrors, and copper utensils have been discovered in noble residences, providing further evidence of their affluence. Woven tapestries and painted walls offered both decoration and insulation, as noted in preserved fragments of textiles and murals.

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Recreation:

Nobles engaged in more elaborate forms of entertainment, including hunting and playing sophisticated board games. The Royal Game of Ur, found in nearby Sumer but also known to have been used in Akkad, is one such game, crafted from precious materials and used as a status symbol. Hunting, especially of lions and gazelles, was a common pastime for the elite, as depicted in Akkadian art and seals.

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Enslaved Individuals

Enslaved people in Akkad were often prisoners of war or debt slaves, as recorded in administrative tablets. Prisoners of war typically worked on large-scale construction projects, such as the building of ziggurats or canal systems, while debt slaves worked in temples or noble households. Texts also suggest that enslaved individuals could occasionally earn their freedom, particularly debt slaves who repaid their obligations.