Ancient Israel: The land of the Jews.

The civilization of the ancient Israelites is a story that has been retold for generations, steeped in lore, history, and tradition. The Biblical narrative states that Abraham, who would become the father of all Israelites, was called through divine providence to leave his home in Ur, a Sumerian city located in modern day Iraq, into a land known as Canaan. However, the historical consensus differs from this original narrative and suggests that the Israelites actually developed from within Canaan itself. These patriarchal traditions, regardless of their precise historicity, reflect the broader cultural landscape of the Late Bronze Age Levant—an environment characterized by small city-states, shifting pastoral groups, and long-distance trade networks under Egyptian influence. The stories of semi-nomadic ancestors resonate with what is known about mobile populations of the period, even if they cannot be tied to specific individuals.

PREHISTORY: 

In the centuries before Israel emerged as a distinct group, Canaan itself was a mosaic of city-states such as Hazor, Megiddo, Lachish, and Gezer. These were vassals of New Kingdom Egypt, whose garrisons, taxation systems, and administrative correspondence (notably the Amarna Letters) shaped political life in the region. The collapse of this system around 1200 BCE created a power vacuum and widespread social disruption, providing the backdrop against which new identities—including Israel—took shape. Archaeologically, the emergence of the Israelites is best understood as an internal transformation of Late Bronze Age Canaanite society. Around 1200 BCE, as the Bronze Age collapsed across the Near East, the central highlands of Canaan saw a sudden rise in small, unfortified agricultural villages in areas that had been sparsely populated for centuries. These early Iron Age settlements display direct continuity with earlier Canaanite material culture—particularly in pottery styles, household tools, and general architectural forms—indicating that their inhabitants were not newcomers. However, several distinct features begin to set them apart. The most consistent marker is a widespread, deliberate avoidance of pigs, evidenced by the near-total absence of pig bones in hundreds of excavated highland sites. This contrasts sharply with many contemporary Canaanite and Philistine settlements and signals a cultural boundary beginning to form. These villages also favor the “four-room house,” a layout that becomes emblematic of early Israelite communities. Together, these patterns suggest not an invasion or migration, but the gradual development of a separate identity—an Israelite identity—within the broader Canaanite world during the Early Iron Age. Although written records are absent, the archaeological pattern suggests a population experimenting with new social structures—rural, kin-based, and relatively egalitarian compared to the palace-centered Canaanite cities. These communities represent one of several responses to the instability of the age, along with the rise of the Philistines in the coastal plain and the reorganization of Transjordanian groups such as Moab and Ammon. Early Israel thus formed as one regional development among many

RISE OF ISRAEL:

The earliest record to date is known as Merneptah Stele. The Merneptah Stele is an ancient Egyptian inscription, a granite slab that serves as a victory monument for Pharaoh Merneptah, son of Ramses II, who ruled Egypt from roughly 1213–1203 BCE. Carved to commemorate Merneptah’s military campaigns in Canaan and Libya, and found in Thebes (Luxor), Egypt, in 1896, it reads 

    “Canaan has been plundered with every evil; Ashkelon has been overcome, Gezer has been captured, Yanoam is made nonexistent; Israel is laid waste, its seed is no more.”

 This inscription effectively establishes the Israelites as a people in the land of Canaan in about 1208 BCE. As time progresses, we begin to see these small, unfortified villages in the central highlands of Canaan grow rapidly. As the Iron Age progressed, these highland villages grew into interconnected chiefdoms. Political centralization—visible in expanded settlements, fortifications, and administrative buildings—began in both the northern and southern highlands. It is against this backdrop that the biblical traditions of early leaders, tribal coalitions, and eventual monarchs should be understood.

Merneptah Stele

The biblical narrative asserts that Israel unites under King Saul against the Philistines, an Aegean people from Crete, Western Anatolia, and Cyprus that are believed to have been part of the "sea peoples", as recorded in Egyptian inscriptions. The Hebrew word for these people was P’lishtim, meaning "invaders from Peleset" from which their name is derived. It states that King Saul is eventually replaced by King David, whose son King Solomon then takes the throne. King Solomon is estimated to have died around 931 BCE, after which the Kingdom of Israel splits in two, the northern half remaining Israel and the southern half becoming known as Judah. There is no archeological findings or recordings to directly corroborate the reign of these individuals from within their lifetime, however in 1868 in Dhiban, modern-day Jordan, The Mesha Stele was discovered. Also known as the Moabite Stone, it is a black basalt stone slab erected by King Mesha of Moab around c. 840 BCE. The stele is inscribed in Moabite, a Northwest Semitic language closely related to Hebrew, and commemorates Mesha’s victories over Israel and his building projects in Moab. It is broken and incomplete, but what could be deciphered reads 

    "Omri king of Israel oppressed Moab… and his son followed him, and he also said: ‘I will oppress Moab.’ But Chemosh said to me: ‘Go, take Nebo from Israel.’ So I went in the night and fought against it from the break of dawn until noon, and I took it and slew all of them; 7,000 men, boys, women, and girls, for I had devoted them to destruction for (the god) Ashtar-Chemosh. And I took from there the vessels of Yahweh and I dragged them before Chemosh". 

This inscription aligns with the narrative found in 2 Kings 3:4–27 that tells the story of Mesha rebelling against Israel after Omri’s line, during the reign of Jehoram of Israel. The reign of Omri is set roughly 46 years after the split of Israel, aligning with the biblical passages of 1 Kings 16:16–28, while his son Ahab is found recorded throughout the book of 1 Kings. By the close of this formative period, the once-fractured highland communities had transformed into a recognizable polity. What began as scattered agricultural villages with emerging cultural boundaries coalesced into organized chiefdoms capable of coordinated defense, regional administration, and sustained population growth. Their identity, initially defined by subtle social and cultural distinctions within Canaan, had solidified into a political community acknowledged by neighboring states and recorded in external inscriptions. The development of early leadership structures, increasing centralization, and the consolidation of territory laid the foundation for monarchic rule. Israel had moved from an internal Canaanite evolution to a distinct, assertive presence in the southern Levant—setting the stage for the political expansion, architectural achievements, and dynastic complexity that would mark its Golden Age.

Mesha Stele

GOLDEN AGE

Israel, with its capital eventually at Samaria, was the larger and economically stronger of the two. Fertile lands, trade routes, and diplomatic alliances helped Israel become a regional force. This period marks the first and only time the northern and southern kingdoms operated as influential regional actors with sustained prosperity, territorial reach, and recognized dynastic authority.

 The Omride dynasty, in particular, left substantial archaeological traces, including administrative buildings, carved ivory panels, and extensive fortifications. Under the Omrides in the north and the Davidic line in the south, both states achieved unprecedented political stability, administrative sophistication, and economic integration with the wider Near Eastern world. Israel, in particular, emerged as a dominant force in the Levant: its fortified cities, monumental architecture, and growing bureaucratic institutions reflect a centralized kingdom capable of commanding trade routes and negotiating with powers such as Aram-Damascus and Assyria. 

Judah, though smaller and more isolated, consolidated its religious and dynastic identity around Jerusalem, its capital, strengthening the institutions that would define its later resilience. Its development was more rural, and its political strength fluctuated significantly. Nevertheless, Judah maintained the Davidic dynasty, and its religious life became increasingly centered around the Temple.

Archaeological evidence from this era—such as the monumental complexes at Samaria, elite ivory craftsmanship, and other large-scale fortifications—demonstrates a level of state organization unseen in earlier centuries. External inscriptions referencing Israel and Judah show that both were now firmly embedded in the geopolitical landscape of the Near East, recognized by and entangled with the great empires of their day. The combination of territorial consolidation, economic expansion, dynastic legitimacy, and cultural development makes this era the high-water mark of ancient Israelite statehood, before the growing pressures of Assyrian imperialism pushed the region back into fragmentation and decline.

Samarian Complex, Palace arch

This period also marks the first substantial appearance of Israel in contemporaneous inscriptions, particularly in records of military conflicts. Following the Mesha Stele, The Tel Dan Stele was discovered in 1993 and 1994 at the site of Tel Dan, in northern Israel, during excavations led by Avraham Biran. Dated to approx. 850–800 BCE, it is believed to have been erected by Hazael, the king of Aram-Damascus, following military victories over Israel and Judah. In 2 Kings 8:7–15, Hazael is depicted as an officer and messenger of the king of Aram (Ben-Hadad II) who ultimately kills Ben-Hadad and takes the throne of Aram. This event is even mentioned in Assyrian Inscriptions by Shalmaneser III stating "Haza’el, son of nobody, seized the throne". The text on the Tel Dan Stele is in Old Aramaic and is partially damaged. The reconstructed translation reads roughly as 

    “…I killed [several kings] and [their sons], and I cut down some of their people. I killed [Ahaziah] king of Judah, and I set his towns on fire. …I killed [the king of Israel] and his people. …I set up my throne over Aram, and the House of David will be broken…”

As of current scholarship, the Tel Dan Stele is the only known contemporary, extra-biblical inscription that mentions the “House of David", both confirming his existence as well as the existence of Israel and Judah as separate kingdoms. Immediately following this, the biblical narrative states Jehu was anointed king by a prophet of Elisha, following divine instruction, to punish the house of Ahab for the idolatry and sins of Ahab and Jezebel (2 Kings 9). It states that Jehu killed King Jehoram of Israel and King Ahaziah of Judah, and while his mother, Athaliah, seized power in Judah he became king of Israel. His existence is recorded on  the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, a significant Assyrian monument dating to ca. 825 BCE. Erected to commemorate the military campaigns of Shalmaneser III, king of Assyria (859–824 BCE) the obelisk contains the first known depiction of a biblical Israelite king in a contemporaneous Assyrian record.One panel shows Jehu bowing before Shalmaneser and presenting tribute, including silver, gold, a golden bowl, and other valuables with an inscription that reads 

    “…Jehu of the house of Omri bowed; I received from him silver, gold, a golden bowl, a golden goblet, golden vessels, bronze vessels, vessels of diverse kinds, and a tribute of him yearly.”

Israel continues as a northern kingdom but has become politically unstable. After Jehu, Israel has several other kings, sometimes expanding territory but generally weak against Assyria. Assyrian expansion reshaped every Levantine state, not just Israel. Trade routes shifted, local kings paid tribute, and regional autonomy diminished. Israel’s internal instability made it particularly vulnerable, whereas Judah managed—at least temporarily—to navigate the pressure through diplomacy and tribute. This period marks the integration of the southern Levant into the imperial systems that would dominate the region for centuries. By the late 9th century BCE, Assyrian expansion into the Levant intensified, and Israel’s internal instability, combined with external pressures, would soon culminate in the kingdom’s downfall

Tel Dan Stele

FALL OF ISRAEL

By the late 9th century BCE, the northern kingdom of Israel was entering a period of political instability. After Jehu’s dynasty (c. 841–814 BCE), kings such as Jehoahaz (c. 814–798 BCE), Jehoash (c. 798–782 BCE), and Jeroboam II (c. 782–753 BCE) ruled intermittently. While Jeroboam II’s reign saw territorial expansion—reconquering lands from the Arameans as recorded in 2 Kings 14:25—Israel’s internal administration remained fragile, and dynastic succession often involved violence, as reflected in biblical accounts of assassinations and palace coups (2 Kings 15:8–30). Archaeological evidence, such as destruction layers in northern cities like Hazor, Megiddo, and Samaria, suggests ongoing localized conflict and fortification efforts, indicative of both internal strife and external threat.

Concurrently, Assyria was consolidating power under kings such as Tiglath-Pileser III (reigned 745–727 BCE). Assyrian annals (the Tiglath-Pileser III inscriptions) record campaigns in the Levant beginning around 738 BCE, in which Israelite kings Menahem, Pekah, and Hoshea were forced to pay tribute. While much of the text is fragmentary or restored by scholars from broken cuneiform, the records explicitly record part of his military campaigns against Israel. The (1) Kalhu Summary Inscription 4 (circa 730 BCE), and (2) a wall slab fragment containing royal inscription reads:

(1)“the city of Gilead, and … the city of Abel‑…, which are the border of Bīt‑Ḫumriaa — I annexed to Assyria … I placed … eunuchs over them as governors.” "In the days of King Pekah of Israel … Tiglath-pileser of Assyria came and captured Ijon, Abel‑beth‑maacah, Janoah, Kedesh, Hazor — Gilead, Galilee, the entire region of Naphtali; and he deported the inhabitants to Assyria.” (2) "Bīt‑Ḫumrî (House of Omri / Israel) … I utterly demolished … during my former campaigns."

These records align with the biblical account in 2 Kings 15–17, which describes Israel’s submission and subsequent instability. 2 Kings 15:29 explicitly mentions Tiglath-Pileser capturing several Israelite cities and deporting people:

“In the days of Pekah king of Israel, Tiglath-Pileser king of Assyria came and captured Ijon, Abel-beth-maacah, Janoah, Kedesh, Hazor, Gilead, and Galilee; and he carried them captive to Assyria.” 

The inscriptions and the biblical account describe the same set of cities and outcomes, corroborating the Assyrian military expansion into northern Israel.. Tiglath-Pileser III annexed the northern territories of Israel, deported populations, and resettled conquered lands with foreign peoples, establishing a pattern that would culminate in the kingdom’s collapse.

Tiglath-Pileser Inscriptions

The decisive fall of the northern kingdom occurred in 722 BCE under Sargon II. The Assyrian inscriptions of Sargon II document the siege and capture of Samaria after a three-year campaign (c. 725–722 BCE), describing the deportation of roughly 27,290 inhabitants and the resettlement of conquered populations with groups from Babylon, Cuthah, Avva, Hamath, and Sepharvaim. These actions correspond closely with the biblical narrative in 2 Kings 17:6–23, which attributes Israel’s exile to disobedience to Yahweh and foretells their dispersion among the nations. Archaeological evidence from Samaria and surrounding northern cities corroborates this account: destruction layers, abandoned settlements, and the sudden cultural discontinuity in material remains—such as the introduction of non-Israelite pottery styles—reflect the Assyrian deportation and resettlement practices.

Additional corroboration comes from Assyrian reliefs and administrative texts. For example, the Nimrud Prism lists tribute from Israelite rulers, while excavation of Assyrian provincial centers shows settlements of deported Israelites integrated with other populations, supporting the historical accuracy of large-scale forced migrations. These combined sources demonstrate that Israel’s fall was not a singular event, but the result of compounded factors: weak internal leadership, pressure from Aram-Damascus, and ultimately the military and administrative might of Assyria. By the early 8th century BCE, Israel ceased to exist as a distinct political entity, leaving Judah as the sole remaining Israelite kingdom in the southern Levant.

 The history of ancient Israel is a testament to the complex interplay of culture, politics, and identity in the ancient Near East. Emerging from the highlands of Canaan, the Israelites transformed from loosely connected, agrarian communities into organized kingdoms recognized by their neighbors and recorded in contemporary inscriptions. Their story reflects both internal social evolution and external pressures—from Egyptian hegemony to Assyrian imperialism—that shaped the trajectory of their society. While the biblical narratives preserve memory, belief, and tradition, archaeology and inscriptions provide a tangible record of political consolidation, economic development, and regional interaction. Together, these sources illuminate a people who forged a distinct identity amidst shifting powers, leaving a legacy that would resonate for millennia in history, religion, and culture.

A Day in the Life of an Ancient Israelite

Life in ancient Israel revolved around family, agriculture, and religious practice, with daily routines closely tied to the rhythms of the seasons and the land. Most Israelites lived in small, rural villages built in the central highlands of Canaan, where homes were constructed from mudbrick and stone, often featuring a simple rectangular layout. Roofs were flat and accessible, providing space for drying grain, storing tools, or sleeping during warmer nights. Interiors were sparse, typically containing a hearth for cooking, storage jars for grain and water, and sleeping mats or low wooden platforms. Wealthier households might include a small courtyard, stone grinding mills for flour, and animal pens.

Clothing and Appearance
Israelite clothing was functional and modest, made primarily from wool and linen. Men typically wore knee-length tunics, often belted at the waist, while women wore long linen dresses or robes. Cloaks or mantles were added for warmth, particularly in the highland winters. Sandals were common for travel, though many worked barefoot within the home or fields. Simple jewelry, such as bronze or silver bracelets, was worn by those who could afford it, and hair was often kept long for women and short or tied back for men.

Daily Tasks and Occupations
The day began at sunrise, with men heading to the fields to tend to crops such as barley, wheat, lentils, and grapes. Livestock—sheep, goats, and sometimes cattle—required regular grazing and milking, and herding could occupy much of the morning. Women focused on household chores: grinding grain into flour using stone mills, baking bread in small clay ovens, preparing meals, spinning wool, and weaving textiles. Children helped with both agricultural and domestic work, learning essential skills from a young age. Craftspeople, such as potters, carpenters, and metalworkers, often worked in communal spaces or small workshops, producing tools, pottery, and household items.

Meals and Diet
The Israelite diet was largely based on grains, legumes, fruits, and vegetables. Breakfast might include barley porridge or flatbread with olives or dates. Midday meals were simple, often consisting of bread, cheese, and lentils, with occasional fish or poultry if available. Olive oil and herbs like mint, coriander, and dill flavored many dishes. Surviving recipes suggest simple preparations, such as stews of lentils, onions, and garlic or roasted vegetables. Wine was consumed, typically diluted with water, during meals or religious ceremonies. Meat was eaten rarely, usually reserved for festivals, religious sacrifices, or special occasions.

Religious and Cultural Life
Religious observance was woven into everyday life. Households maintained small altars or sacred spaces for offering incense, grain, or wine to Yahweh. Weekly gatherings on the Sabbath provided rest, reflection, and communal worship. Festivals and harvest celebrations, such as Passover or the Feast of Weeks, involved ritual meals, music, and communal participation.

Recreation and Social Life
Leisure was modest but present. Children played simple games like knucklebones or board games resembling early strategy games, while adults might gather for storytelling, music, or dance during religious festivals. Villagers often shared labor collectively during harvest or construction projects, strengthening social bonds and community identity.

Daily life was physically demanding and dependent on environmental conditions. Poor rainfall could threaten crops, while disease or predation could affect livestock. In addition, the threat of raids from neighboring peoples or regional conflicts added an element of insecurity, making fortifications and cooperative defense essential for survival.

Life as an ancient Israelite was deeply interconnected with the land, community, and religious tradition. From sunrise to sunset, every task—from grinding grain to tending flocks—reflected a culture rooted in practicality, faith, and resilience, balancing the demands of survival with social cohesion and spiritual observance.