Ancient Sumer: The First Civilization
PREHISTORY
Sumer was a civilization in southern Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq), often credited as the world’s first complex society. It is believed to have developed around 4500 BCE, with significant urbanization by around 3100 BCE. Sumerians were the first known people to form city-states, develop a system of writing, and advance in mathematics, agriculture, and governance. While urbanization itself existed prior, Sumerians were the first to record themselves and begin what we would eventually call history. Sumer was first settled between 4500 and 4000 BCE by a non-Semitic people that did not speak Sumerian. These people now are called "proto-Euphrateans" or "Ubaidians" for the village of Al-ʿUbayd, the place they were discovered in Southeastern Iraq. The Ubaid period is dated from about 5200 to c. 3500 BC within this region that would become Sumer, however evidence in the north of their presence is not seen until c.4300. There is much speculation as to exactly where these people originally migrated from, but there are current theories. Some scholars believe they migrated South to more fertile lands after a drought, while others say they arrived in Mesopotamia from the south, originating near Eridu, the oldest (or earliest) city in Mesopotamia or from Anatolia, the peninsula of land that today constitutes the Asian portion of Turkey. While the majority of historians believe they were West Asian, there are also theories that suggest they may have been North African migrating from the Green Sahara into the Middle East, or associated with the Hurrians and Urartian's from Caucasus, while others point to Sumerian text that claims Dilmun as their homeland, which scholars say is the island of Bahrain in the Persian Gulf The Ubaidians were the first force of unified civilization in the area, and made advancements by using marshes for agriculture, developing trade, and industries such as weaving, leatherwork, metalwork, masonry, and pottery. This laid the groundwork for whom we would later call the Sumerians.
(1)
(1)RISE OF SUMER
The Euphrates and Tigris Rivers that run through the land, allowed for fertile soil, supporting larger agricultural yields. This agricultural surplus allowed for population growth and early forms of specialization, eventually giving rise to proto city states. They also began developing early trade routes and Sumerians built ships that allowed them to travel into the Persian Gulf and trade with other early civilizations, such as the Harappans in northern India. As Mesopotamia was lacking in resources such as metals, timber, stone, and grapevines and were typically traded for with barley. The Sumerians used the shekel as a uniform currency, which was equivalent to one portion of barley. Wool, lapis lazuli, gold, copper and iron were all important commodities that came specifically from trade. During this time, we can also see the development of religious centers in each of the city states. These religious centers would form the center structure of the eventual city states. Each state was comprised of the center temple with a walled city stretching outwards, with its relative surrounding lands. Early ziggurats and temple complexes began appearing in city centers, with the priestly class growing in power. Each city had a patron deity, which helped to unify the populace around religious authority. City states like Kish, Erech (Uruk), Ur, Sippar, Akshak, Larak, Nippur, Adab, Umma, Lagash, Bad-tibira, and Larsa are built and become central hubs of the area. Around 3200 BCE, proto-cuneiform writing emerged in Uruk, used for administrative purposes such as accounting and trade records.
(2. The great city of Ur)GOLDEN AGE
Also known as the Dynastic Period, this golden age would see city-states to begin to develop independently, often ruled by kings who claimed they had been chosen by God. Whereas originally power had been held in the hands of the citizens, the city states began to compete for dominance and instead adopted forms of kingships. By 2900 BCE, cuneiform evolved into a more standardized writing system, used for everything from legal documents to literary works. The Sumerian Kings List, a surviving Sumerian Cuneiform tablet lists eight different kings during the "pre-flood' era that were named as Alulim, Alalgar, En-men-lu-ana, En-men-gal-ana, Dumuzid, En-sipad-zid-ana, En-men-dur-ana and Ubara-Tutu. However, these kings were also reported to have ruled millions of years, leading us to believe it to be a combination of historical memory and mythology preceding the Ubaid's, perhaps symbolizing real figures who were mythologized over time. However, figures like Enmerkar, who allegedly founded Uruk, and Gilgamesh, an early king of Uruk, are notable from this period. The Sumerians undertook large city-wide projects such as irrigation canals and fortifications, while also creating advancements in weaponry with bronze. Uruk became the largest city state, holding about a population of about 50,000 people. It was during this time The epic of Gilgamesh was written. 
(The Sumerian Kings List)
(The Sumerian Kings List)THE DECLINE
The city-states of Lagash and Umma engaged in conflict over fertile lands near their borders, weaking the Sumerian city states and Records from the “Stele of the Vultures” commemorate a Lagash victory over Umma. The city states continued fighting amongst themselves, making themselves vulnerable to outside influence. Around 2530–2450 BCE), the Elamites, who were based to the east in what is now southwestern Iran, conducted military campaigns into Sumer. These incursions were likely aimed at raiding and destabilizing the wealthier and more agriculturally prosperous Sumerian city-states. This led way until Sargon of Akkad, a Semitic ruler from northern Mesopotamia, conquered Sumer, creating one of the first known empires. He united the Sumerian city-states under Akkadian rule and established a new capital at Akkad, Sargon’s empire now stretching from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean. Sargon is credited with creating one of the first standing armies in recorded history, estimated to have up to 5,400 soldiers known as the "Agaush." Unlike the part-time militias typically raised by city-states for individual battles, Sargon’s professional army could move quickly, maintain campaigns for extended periods, and ensure centralized control. Sargon laid siege to the cities individually, allowing himself to avoid fighting a united Sumer. He would surround the walls and lay siege to the city, cutting them off from supplies that were located outside the walls. He was also reportedly known to bribe guards and officials. Sargon would then storm the city, imposing harsh punishments on any that resisted and making an example out of city leaders in order to instill loyalty through fear. Sargons Dynasty would only last however for about one hundred years, or until c. 2154–2004 BCE. A nomadic people from the Zagros Mountains known as Gutians launched a heavy invasion into the area, leading to the downfall of the Akkadians. This allowed the Sumerians to briefly revive their old ways and gain independence for a short time more, known as Sumerian Renaissance, the Third Dynasty of Ur. Ur III saw the construction of grand ziggurats, including the famous Great Ziggurat of Ur, and advancements in law, literature, and urban planning including the first king of the third dynasty Ur-Nammu, publishing the earliest law code yet discovered in Mesopotamia. As time progressed, Ur III dynasty became weak due to a combination of internal economic issues, military defeats, and environmental degradation. In roughly 2004 BCE the Elamites invaded again, further loosening Sumerian grips on the area. This hold on the area would prove to be temporary, as the Elamites were foreign rulers and did not settle in Sumer. Meanwhile, another sematic group in the area known as the Amorites began taking over land and establishing their presence. Amorites assimilated to the Mesopotamian lifestyle unlike the Elamites, and this saw continued resistance against the Elamites while forming alliances and agreements with the newly settling Amorites. The Amorites would eventually go on to conquer all of Mesopotamia, ending the civilization known as the Sumerians. Thier culture and lands would eventually be absorbed by Babylon, however their accomplishments such as Potters Wheels and the first vehicle to use wheels, the first writing system of cuneiform, and their development as the first city states would solidify their place in history by laying the groundwork for all of the advanced civilizations that came after them. In all, Sumer lasted approximately 1,500 years.
(3. Stele of the Vultures)
(3. Stele of the Vultures)A DAY IN THE LIFE...
Life in Sumer was not very different in structure then it is today. Unfortunately, along with being the first civilization, Sumer has also earned the title as being the first recorded civilization to exhibit ideas such as racism, as well as being the first recorded civilization to practice slavery. While these practices and ideas likely originated long prior, being the first civilization to develop a written system also subjected them to these unfortunate titles. Surviving Sumerian texts mentions enslaved people hailing from Elam (modern day south-western Iraq) as well as Akkadians, describing the Elamites as "barbaric" and "uncivilized". This saw the structure of Sumer devolve into three primary, highly stratified main classes: nobles, commoners, and slaves. Life would be rather different depending on what class you found yourself. The Noble class consisted of royalty, officials and priests, whereas the commoners class saw most of the "working class" such as farmers, potters and laborers. In Sumerian society, class structure was relatively rigid, as much of the nobility class was based on genealogy. As rulers began declaring "divine right", this gave birth to the ideas of having "blessed" blood, or the "blood of royalty". This meant that from birth, your place in the social hierarchy was rather fixed, however thorough patronage or perhaps close ties to any of the noble class, you could ascend yourself above your peers. Some administrative roles were hereditary, but certain positions, especially in large cities, could be appointed by the ruler. Advisors, accountants, and tax officials were often chosen based on loyalty, proximity to the royal family, or education. Skilled positions like scribes or artisans required formal training. Scribes often came from families who could afford education, creating a smaller middle class within commoners. Literacy or craftsmanship could elevate a commoner’s status and connect them with the nobility or temples. Slaves consisted of two types of slaves, debt slaves and prisoners of war. Debt slaves could find themselves returned to status with the payment of their debts, but prisoners of war were unlikely to see such freedom.
COMMONERS
DIET
Living as a commoner in Sumer, your primary diet consisted of grains, particularly barley. Sumerians grew barley in the fertile soil along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, alongside wheat, beans, and onions. With barley being commonly accessible and widely grown, it formed the base of many meals, crafting ingredients such as bread, beer and porridge. Commoners also ate lentils, onions, garlic, cucumbers, dates, and occasionally dairy, often in the form of sour milk or cheese. Beer was often safer than water, as the water from the rivers was prone to contamination, possibly by waste disposal. Sumerians would take barley, mash it up and boil it, allowing it to ferment and creating a solution that was around 2-3% ABV. This method proved safer for killing contaminants and also offered additional calories and nutrients. Food for commoners was often bland, as seasonings were often imported and expensive, or reserved for the noble class. Salt was mined from the local salt beds, however valued primarily for its value in preservation instead of flavoring. Instead, commoners would rely on local flavorings like garlic, onions, leeks, mustard seeds and local wildflowers. Fish was the typical protein source for the commoner's class, as the Tigris and Euphrates rivers were abundant with species like catfish and carp that could be dried and salted. However, animals at this time proved more valuable alive then dead, as cattle, sheep and goats provided milk, wool, labor and religious sacrifice. This being recognized, the king often placed laws against hunting and controlled the available markets. Most ingredients came from the fertile lands surrounding the city-states. Vegetables were grown in garden plots irrigated by canals, which was done collectively or managed by temple estates, who distributed rations to workers.
HOUSING
Commoners' homes were constructed of mudbrick that were made from straw and clay and were either sun-dried or kiln fired. Sun dried bricks were less durable and often needed repairs. Homes were usually a one, multipurpose room, in a single-story building and homes were often rather compact. Reed mats offered structural support, but timber was sourced from the nearby banks and therefore finite and reserved for roof beams. Roofs were flat and accessible, allowing residents to use them as sleeping spaces during warmer nights or as storage. To protect against erosion and the frequent dust storms, walls were coated with a thin layer of lime plaster or mud reducing the impact of rain, yet they still required frequent maintenance. Building with mudbrick allowed the Sumerians to build homes from what was readily available, yet mudbrick often needed repairs and was a family or community effort. In fact, it's believed Sumerians had to repair their homes after every rainy season. Some homes featured a courtyard that allowed for ventilation. The inside of the home likely contained few furnishings, aside from reed mats for sleeping, small wooden or clay stools, a built-in basic hearth or clay oven, and small clay jars, baskets, or pits in the floor that were used for food storage.
RECREATION
Commoners were known to play board games that involved themes such as strategy and luck. Activities such as foot racing and wrestling were common among both children and adults. Commoners would usually attend religious events thrown by the upper class and also participated in seasonal events such as an annual feast.
NOBLES
DIET
Nobles enjoyed a diet rather different than those of the commoners. They frequently enjoyed lamb, goat, and even beef, though certain meats like pork were rare. Food was usually prepared by slaves. The Yale Babylonian Culinary Tablets contain recipes that likely originated in Sumer, including stews with ingredients like lamb, garlic, and leeks, thickened with grain. Nobility was known to throw lavish feats that would contain impressive amounts of imported, and therefore expensive, goods, including things like as dates, figs, pomegranates, and especially grapes. Alongside these, the nobility class also enjoyed imported seasonings inaccessible to the commoners such as cinnamon, saffron, and coriander from distant regions like the Indus Valley, Egypt, and Anatolia. Salt was used less sparingly in the noble class, and therefore was often used for preservation as well as flavor. Nobles had ample access to milk, cheese, and clarified butter as well as an incredibly precious and expensive sweetener: honey. Largely restricted to the noble class due to the resources required to produce or import it, honey was often seen at religious events. Oils from sesame and dates added richness to their dishes, whereas nuts such as pistachios and almonds were a rare delicacy. Nobles also drank beer but had access to stronger alcoholic beverages such as imported wine from the Zagros Mountains.
HOUSING
Nobles' homes were often constructed of kiln fired bricks that were more durable and structurally sound, requiring fewer repairs. Furthermore, nobility was known to use cedar wood imported from places like Lebanon and stone was also integrated as decorative flooring that kept the interior cool, or as a foundation in some areas. Nobles' homes were usually coated in a thick layer of plaster and painted black, red or white that would repel the sun and heat, protect from erosion, and also give the homes a polished aesthetic. Homes were often two or three storied and feature multiple rooms, the upper levels usually reserved for private family quarters whereas the lower floors may be used for social or administrative reasons. Many noble residences featured large central courtyards and, occasionally, small garden spaces where fruits or ornamental plants could be grown. Unlike commoners, nobles' homes were furnished with wooden furniture, often carved or inlaid with designs, that had been imported. Stone seats, tables, and beds adorned with textiles or woven mats could also be found inside. Woven tapestries would often soften the otherwise hard cornered mudbrick rooms, and bronze and copper items like goblets, mirrors, and storage jars adorned the rooms. Nobility also had a designated room for cooking and the storage of food rather than a pit. Homes were usually constructed by skilled artisans rather than the cities populace.
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